Difference between revisions of "Universal suffrage"

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The table below (currently incomplete) lists the year that universal male and universal female suffrage were introduced in to various jurisdictions. In general nations that became independent during the 20th or 21st centuries granted universal suffrage to men and women at the same time. In nations that became independent during the 19th century men often led women by a few years or decades in obtaining suffrage. Greece and Switzerland are notable exceptions to this general trend.
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The table below lists the year that universal male and universal female suffrage were introduced into various nations at the national level. Sub-national entities such as states, provinces and cities sometimes had entirely different voting qualifications and are not dealt with in this article. The list below is non-exhaustive.
   
  +
In general nations that became independent during the 20th or 21st centuries granted universal suffrage to men and women at the same time. In nations that became independent before the 20th century men typically led women by a few years or decades in obtaining suffrage. Even a few decades should be seen as a short period of time given that human political thought has been developing, even conservatively, for 5000 years.
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{| class="wikitable"
  
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!Jurisdiction||Universal Male Suffrage||Universal Female Suffrage||Difference (years)||Notes
  
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{{Suffrage definition}}
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{| class="sortable wikitable"
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!Country
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!Universal Male Suffrage
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!Universal Female Suffrage
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!Difference (years)
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!class="unsortable"|Notes
 
|-
  
|-
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|Afganistan||1977||1977||0||
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|Australia||1901||1902||1||During the 1901 (inaugural) federal election women were eligible to vote if they were eligible to vote in their home state elections. As a result women in South Australia and Western Australia voted in the 1901 election.
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|Algeria||1962||1962||0||
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|Australia, New South Wales||1858||1902||44||
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
|Australia, Queensland||1872||1905||33||
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|Argentina||1853||1952||99||
 
|-
  
|-
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|Armenia||1919||1921||2||
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|Australia, South Australia||1855||1895||40||
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Austria||1907||1918||11||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1896 despite Austria allowing multiple voting before 1907.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
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|Australia, Tasmania||1896||1903||7||
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Australia||1901||1902||1||During the 1901 (inaugural) federal election women were eligible to vote if they were eligible to vote in their home state elections. As a result women in South Australia and Western Australia voted in the 1901 election. For Australian states see [[Suffrage in Australia|this article]].
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|Australia, Victoria||1857||1908||51||
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Azerbaijan||1919||1919||0||
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|Australia, Western Australia||1893||1899||6||
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
|Belgium||1918||1948||30||
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|Bahamas||1958||1961||3||
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|Bahrain||1973||1973||0||
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|Canada||1920||1920||0||Chinese and aborigines were initially excluded regardless of gender.
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|Belgium||1918||1948||30||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1893 despite men under 25 being unable to vote and multiple voting being permissible until 1918.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
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|Canada, Alberta|| ||1916|| ||
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Canada, Manitoba|| ||1916|| ||
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|Bhutan||2008||2008||0||
 
|-
  
|-
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|Bolivia||1956||1956||0||
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|Canada, Newfoundland||1925||1925||0||Newfoundland did not become part of Canada until 1949.
  
 
|-
  
|-
  +
|Brazil||1988||1988||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to various different definitions. The Old Republic (1889-1930) allowed only limited suffrage. During this period Brazil was under the control of large landholders. From 1930 to 1988 various dictatorships ran Brazil. Genuine democracy was only established in 1988.
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|Canada, Ontario|| || || ||
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Brunei||-||-||-||Brunei is an absolute monarchy and its citizens have never had the franchise.
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|Canada, Prince Edward Island||1902|| || ||
  
 
|-
  
|-
−
|Canada, Quebec|| ||1940|| ||
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|Bulgaria||1945||1945||0||
 
|-
  
|-
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|Canada, Saskatchewan|| ||1916|| ||
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|Burma/Myanmar||1990||1990||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Canada||1920||1920||0||Chinese and aborigines were initially excluded regardless of gender. For Canadian provinces see [[Suffrage in Canada|this article]].
 
|-
  
|-
 
|Chile||1970||1970||0||
  
|Chile||1970||1970||0||
 
|-
  
|-
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||Finland||1906||1906||0||
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|Colombia||1936||1954||18||
 
|-
  
|-
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|Czechia||1896||1918||22||As the First Czechoslovak Republic.
−
|Greece||1830||1952||122||
  
  +
|-
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|Denmark||1915||1915||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1849 despite men under 30 and men ''not of good character'' being unable to vote at the time.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|Dominica|| || || ||Research continues.
  +
|-
  +
|Dominican Republic||2015||2015||0||
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|-
  +
|Egypt|| || || ||Research continues.
  +
|-
  +
|Estonia||1917||1918||1||
  +
|-
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|European Union||1979||1979||0||
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|-
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|Finland||1906||1906||0||
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|-
  +
|France||1848||1944||96||
  +
|-
  +
|Georgia||1919||1919||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Germany||1871||1919||48||
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|-
  +
|Ghana||1957||1957||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Greece||1844||1952||108||
  +
|-
  +
|Hong Kong||1991||1991||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Hungary||1918||1918||0||
  +
|-
  +
|India||1950||1950||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Indonesia||1955||1955||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Iran||1906||1963||57||
  +
|-
  +
|Ireland||1918||1923||5||
 
|-
  
|-
 
|Israel||1948||1948||0||
  
|Israel||1948||1948||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Italy||1918||1945||27||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1912 despite men under 30 being unable to vote until 1918.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
 
|-
  
|-
 
|Jamaica||1944||1944||0||The House of Representatives was established in 1944. Jamaica then gained increasing autonomy and finally became fully independent in 1962, with universal suffrage throughout.
  
|Jamaica||1944||1944||0||The House of Representatives was established in 1944. Jamaica then gained increasing autonomy and finally became fully independent in 1962, with universal suffrage throughout.
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|-
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|Japan||1945||1945||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1925 despite men under 25 being unable to vote until 1945.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
  +
|-
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|Kuwait||1962||2005||43||
  +
|-
  +
|Latvia||1919||1919||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Lebanon||1943||1943||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Liberia||1946||1946||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Liechtenstein||1984||1984||0||
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|-
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|Lithuania||1922||1922||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Luxembourg||1919||1919||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Malaysia||1956||1957||1||
  +
|-
  +
|Malta||1947||1947||0||
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|-
  +
|Mexico||1917||1953||36||
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|-
  +
|Netherlands||1971||1971||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal suffrage from 1919 despite men and women under 23 not being able to vote until 1971.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
 
|-
  
|-
 
|New Zealand||1879||1893||14||
  
|New Zealand||1879||1893||14||
 
|-
  
|-
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|Norway||1898||1913||15||
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|Sweden||1848 ||1919||71||Military officers were unable to vote until 1945.
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Pakistan||1947||1947||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
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|Switzerland||1848||1971||123||Switzerland is a federal state made up of Cantons. At a Canton level universal male and female suffrage was achieved at different times.
  
 
|-
  
|-
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|Peru||1979||1979||0||
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|United Kingdom||1918||1928||10||Women 30 or older gained the franchise in 1918 if they lived in a house, had a husband who did or owned property worth a certain amount.
  
  +
|-
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|Philippines||1935||1937||2||
  +
|-
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|Poland||1918||1918||0||
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|-
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|Portugal||1974||1974||0||
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|-
  +
|Qatar||2013|| || ||Research continues.
  +
|-
  +
|Romania||1918||1948||30||
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|-
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|Russia||1917||1917||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Samoa||1990||1991||1||
  +
|-
  +
|Saudi Arabia||-||-||-||Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy and its citizens have never had the franchise.
  +
|-
  +
|Serbia||1888||1945||57||
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|-
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|South Africa||1931||1931||0||
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|-
  +
|South Korea||1987||1987||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as only limited suffrage was introduced in 1948. The first democratic election in South Korea occurred following the establishment of the ''Sixth Republic''.
  +
|-
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|Spain||1890||1933||43||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as the 1812 Constitution did not extend suffrage to all men, as Wikipedia itself notes.<ref>https://blog.congreso.es/sufragio-universal-espana/</ref><ref>https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/995-2015-01-09-sufragismo.pdf</ref><ref>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9227768</ref><ref>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/176141849</ref><ref>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/172122231</ref><ref>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9233986</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|Slovakia||1896||1918||22||As the First Czechoslovak Republic.
  +
|-
  +
|Sri Lanka||1931||1931||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Sweden||1945||1945||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1909 despite men under 25 not being able to vote at the time. Wikipedia counts universal female suffrage from 1919 despite men and women under 23 not being able to vote at the time. Wikipedia does admit that universal suffrage was introduced in 1945 but this is inconsistent with the other dates presented for Sweden.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|Switzerland||1848||1971||123||Switzerland is a federal state made up of cantons. At a canton level universal male and female suffrage was achieved at different times. Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as Wikipedia is counting canton dates not just federal dates.
  +
|-
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|Taiwan||1992||1992||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Thailand||1933||1933||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Tunisia||1959||1959||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Turkey||1946||1946||0||The first multi-party elections in the country were in 1946.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_Turkish_general_election</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|United Arab Emirates||-||-||-||Limited suffrage only for all adults. The dates displayed on Wikipedia for male & female suffrage are erroneous as Wikipedia fails to meet even its own definitions of male & female suffrage on several key points.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|United Kingdom||1918||1928||10||The [[Reform Act 1832]] barred women from voting in national elections from 1832 to 1918. During this period women could still vote in local elections. In 1918 women over 30 gained the franchise if they lived in a house, had a husband who did or owned property worth a certain amount.<ref>https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Citizenship_in_Britain/js-qBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA107&printsec=frontcover</ref><ref>https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-politics/9933592/Women-voted-75-years-before-they-were-legally-allowed-to-in-1918.html</ref><ref>https://archive.is/5QG0k</ref>
  +
|-
  +
|United States||1870||1920||50||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage</ref> For US states see [[Suffrage in the United States|this article]].
  +
|-
  +
|Uruguay||1918||1918||0||
  +
|-
  +
|Zimbabwe||1987||1987||0||Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Universal suffrage without additional conditions consistent with international norms only occurred in 1987.
 
|-
  
|-
 
|}
  
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*[[Suffrage]]
  
*[[Suffrage]]
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*[[Universal suffrage in Australia]]
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*[[Universal suffrage in Canada]]
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*[[Universal suffrage in the United States]]
   
 
== External Links ==
  
== External Links ==
Line 64: Line 189:
 
*[http://www.unlockthepast.com.au/sites/default/files/Kopittke%20%R%20%-%20%Suffrage%20%in%20%Queensland.pdf Good summary for Australia]
  
*[http://www.unlockthepast.com.au/sites/default/files/Kopittke%20%R%20%-%20%Suffrage%20%in%20%Queensland.pdf Good summary for Australia]
 
*[http://www.localhistories.org/vote.html A Brief History of Voting]
  
*[http://www.localhistories.org/vote.html A Brief History of Voting]
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*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage Page on Wikipedia contains a similar list]
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*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage Wikipedia contains a similar list]
 
*[https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/universal-male-suffrage-introduced Universal male suffrage in New Zealand]
  
*[https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/universal-male-suffrage-introduced Universal male suffrage in New Zealand]
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*[https://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=his&document=chap2&lang=e Elections Canada]
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*[https://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=res&dir=his&document=chap2&lang=e Discussion of suffrage Elections Canada]
  +
*[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~iversen/PDFfiles/LottKenny.pdf Did Women’s Suffrage Change the Size and Scope of Government?]
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*[http://localhistories.org/votetime.html Timeline of suffrage]
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{{Countries}}
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{{Featured}}
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{{Lists}}
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{{Suffrage}}
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{{Wikipedia}}
   
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== References ==
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[[Category: Suffrage]]
  
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[[Category:Featured Articles]]
  

Latest revision as of 05:08, 16 June 2024

The table below lists the year that universal male and universal female suffrage were introduced into various nations at the national level. Sub-national entities such as states, provinces and cities sometimes had entirely different voting qualifications and are not dealt with in this article. The list below is non-exhaustive.

In general nations that became independent during the 20th or 21st centuries granted universal suffrage to men and women at the same time. In nations that became independent before the 20th century men typically led women by a few years or decades in obtaining suffrage. Even a few decades should be seen as a short period of time given that human political thought has been developing, even conservatively, for 5000 years.

The following definitions are used in the table below:

Universal Male Suffrage: Men of the majority ethnic group are permitted one secret vote in free elections irrespective of possession of land, wealth, education levels or literacy levels where the minimum age is no higher than 21.

This differs from the definition used in the English Wikipedia as it considers universal male suffrage to begin when men of the majority ethnic group of any age received the franchise without further qualification. The English Wikipedia definition would mean that in reality only a minority of men would have the franchise and makes it appear that universal male suffrage was enacted earlier than it really was.

Universal Female Suffrage: Women of the majority ethnic group are permitted one secret vote in free elections irrespective of possession of land, wealth, education levels or literacy levels where the minimum age is no higher than 21.

It is universally accepted within psephology that some citizens may be deprived of suffrage while a jurisdiction can still be considered to have Universal Suffrage. Examples of citizens so deprived include military officers, citizens who are non-resident, citizens serving a term of imprisonment and citizens with serious criminal records.

If minority ethnic suffrage was counted as a requirement for universal male and female suffrage then the dates of universal suffrage would be much later for many nations. This would unfortunately obscure important information pertaining to universal suffrage and gender - that in general there was little or no delay between universal male and universal female suffrage of the majority ethnic group in most nations. The exclusion of minority ethnic suffrage in this manner is also consistent with the norms of psephology when considering universal male and universal female suffrage.

Country Universal Male Suffrage Universal Female Suffrage Difference (years) Notes
Afganistan 1977 1977 0
Algeria 1962 1962 0
Argentina 1853 1952 99
Armenia 1919 1921 2
Austria 1907 1918 11 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1896 despite Austria allowing multiple voting before 1907.[1]
Australia 1901 1902 1 During the 1901 (inaugural) federal election women were eligible to vote if they were eligible to vote in their home state elections. As a result women in South Australia and Western Australia voted in the 1901 election. For Australian states see this article.
Azerbaijan 1919 1919 0
Bahamas 1958 1961 3
Bahrain 1973 1973 0
Belgium 1918 1948 30 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1893 despite men under 25 being unable to vote and multiple voting being permissible until 1918.[2]
Bhutan 2008 2008 0
Bolivia 1956 1956 0
Brazil 1988 1988 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to various different definitions. The Old Republic (1889-1930) allowed only limited suffrage. During this period Brazil was under the control of large landholders. From 1930 to 1988 various dictatorships ran Brazil. Genuine democracy was only established in 1988.
Brunei - - - Brunei is an absolute monarchy and its citizens have never had the franchise.
Bulgaria 1945 1945 0
Burma/Myanmar 1990 1990 0
Canada 1920 1920 0 Chinese and aborigines were initially excluded regardless of gender. For Canadian provinces see this article.
Chile 1970 1970 0
Colombia 1936 1954 18
Czechia 1896 1918 22 As the First Czechoslovak Republic.
Denmark 1915 1915 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1849 despite men under 30 and men not of good character being unable to vote at the time.[3]
Dominica Research continues.
Dominican Republic 2015 2015 0
Egypt Research continues.
Estonia 1917 1918 1
European Union 1979 1979 0
Finland 1906 1906 0
France 1848 1944 96
Georgia 1919 1919 0
Germany 1871 1919 48
Ghana 1957 1957 0
Greece 1844 1952 108
Hong Kong 1991 1991 0
Hungary 1918 1918 0
India 1950 1950 0
Indonesia 1955 1955 0
Iran 1906 1963 57
Ireland 1918 1923 5
Israel 1948 1948 0
Italy 1918 1945 27 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1912 despite men under 30 being unable to vote until 1918.[4]
Jamaica 1944 1944 0 The House of Representatives was established in 1944. Jamaica then gained increasing autonomy and finally became fully independent in 1962, with universal suffrage throughout.
Japan 1945 1945 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1925 despite men under 25 being unable to vote until 1945.[5]
Kuwait 1962 2005 43
Latvia 1919 1919 0
Lebanon 1943 1943 0
Liberia 1946 1946 0
Liechtenstein 1984 1984 0
Lithuania 1922 1922 0
Luxembourg 1919 1919 0
Malaysia 1956 1957 1
Malta 1947 1947 0
Mexico 1917 1953 36
Netherlands 1971 1971 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal suffrage from 1919 despite men and women under 23 not being able to vote until 1971.[6]
New Zealand 1879 1893 14
Norway 1898 1913 15
Pakistan 1947 1947 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage.[7]
Peru 1979 1979 0
Philippines 1935 1937 2
Poland 1918 1918 0
Portugal 1974 1974 0
Qatar 2013 Research continues.
Romania 1918 1948 30
Russia 1917 1917 0
Samoa 1990 1991 1
Saudi Arabia - - - Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy and its citizens have never had the franchise.
Serbia 1888 1945 57
South Africa 1931 1931 0
South Korea 1987 1987 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as only limited suffrage was introduced in 1948. The first democratic election in South Korea occurred following the establishment of the Sixth Republic.
Spain 1890 1933 43 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as the 1812 Constitution did not extend suffrage to all men, as Wikipedia itself notes.[8][9][10][11][12][13]
Slovakia 1896 1918 22 As the First Czechoslovak Republic.
Sri Lanka 1931 1931 0
Sweden 1945 1945 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Wikipedia counts universal male suffrage from 1909 despite men under 25 not being able to vote at the time. Wikipedia counts universal female suffrage from 1919 despite men and women under 23 not being able to vote at the time. Wikipedia does admit that universal suffrage was introduced in 1945 but this is inconsistent with the other dates presented for Sweden.[14]
Switzerland 1848 1971 123 Switzerland is a federal state made up of cantons. At a canton level universal male and female suffrage was achieved at different times. Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here as Wikipedia is counting canton dates not just federal dates.
Taiwan 1992 1992 0
Thailand 1933 1933 0
Tunisia 1959 1959 0
Turkey 1946 1946 0 The first multi-party elections in the country were in 1946.[15]
United Arab Emirates - - - Limited suffrage only for all adults. The dates displayed on Wikipedia for male & female suffrage are erroneous as Wikipedia fails to meet even its own definitions of male & female suffrage on several key points.[16]
United Kingdom 1918 1928 10 The Reform Act 1832 barred women from voting in national elections from 1832 to 1918. During this period women could still vote in local elections. In 1918 women over 30 gained the franchise if they lived in a house, had a husband who did or owned property worth a certain amount.[17][18][19]
United States 1870 1920 50 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage.[20] For US states see this article.
Uruguay 1918 1918 0
Zimbabwe 1987 1987 0 Information in Wikipedia differs from that presented here due to a different definition for Universal Male Suffrage. Universal suffrage without additional conditions consistent with international norms only occurred in 1987.

See Also

External Links

This article contains information imported from the English Wikipedia. In most cases the page history will have details. If you need information on the importation and have difficulty obtaining it please contact the site administrators.

Wikipedia shows a strong woke bias. Text copied over from Wikipedia can be corrected and improved.

References

  1. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  2. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  3. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  4. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  5. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  6. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  7. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  8. ↑ https://blog.congreso.es/sufragio-universal-espana/
  9. ↑ https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/995-2015-01-09-sufragismo.pdf
  10. ↑ https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9227768
  11. ↑ https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/176141849
  12. ↑ https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/172122231
  13. ↑ https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9233986
  14. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  15. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946_Turkish_general_election
  16. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
  17. ↑ https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Citizenship_in_Britain/js-qBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA107&printsec=frontcover
  18. ↑ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-politics/9933592/Women-voted-75-years-before-they-were-legally-allowed-to-in-1918.html
  19. ↑ https://archive.is/5QG0k
  20. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage
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