Patriarchy (anthropology)
Patriarchy (rule by fathers) is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure central in social organization and in the roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Fathers hold authority over women and children. It involves institutions of male rule and privilege, entailing female subordination. Many patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage. The female equivalent is matriarchy.
Definition and usage
Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father"[1][2] and comes from the Greek πατριάρχης (patriarkhēs), "father of a race" or "chief of a race, patriarch",[3][4] which is a compound of πατριά (patria), " lineage, descent"[5] (from πατήρ - patēr, "father") and ἄρχω (arxō), "I rule".[6]
Historically, the term patriarchy referred to autocratic rule by the male head of a family. However, in modern times, it more generally refers to social systems in which power is primarily held by adult men.[7][8][9][10]
History
Anthropological evidence suggests that most prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies were relatively egalitarian, and that patriarchal social structures did not develop until many years after the end of the Pleistocene era, following social and technological innovations such as agriculture and domestication.[11][12][13] However, according to Robert M. Strozier, historical research has not yet found a specific "initiating event".[14] Some scholars point to about six thousand years ago (4000 BCE), when the concept of fatherhood took root, as the beginning of the spread of patriarchy.
Domination by men of women is found in the Ancient Near East as far back as 3100 BCE, as are restrictions on a woman's reproductive capacity and exclusion from "the process of representing or the construction of history".[14] With the appearance of the Hebrews, there is also "the exclusion of woman from the God-humanity covenant".[14][17]
A prominent Greek general Meno, in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, sums up the prevailing Greek sentiment about the respective virtues of men and women. He says:
- Let us take first the virtue of a man—he should know how to administer the state, and in the administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: her duty is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband."[18]
The works of Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men; saw women as the property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and serve men in the household; and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous.[19][20][21]
In Symbols by Gerda Lerner, she states that Aristotle believed that women had colder blood than men, which made women not evolve into men, the sex that Aristotle believed to be perfect and superior. Maryanne Cline Horowotz stated that Aristotle believed that "soul contributes the form and model of creation." This implies that any imperfection that is caused in the world must be caused by a woman because one cannot acquire an imperfection from perfection (which was perceived as male). Aristotle had a hierarchical ruling structure in his theories. Just as he believed that the Greeks were greater than the barbarians, he also duly believed that men were greater than women.
Lerner claims that through this patriarchy that has been passed down generation to generation, people have conditioned to believe that men are superior to women. These symbols are benchmarks which children learn about when they grow up, and the cycle of patriarchy continues much past the Greeks.[22]
Egypt left no philosophical record, but Herodotus left a record of his shock at the contrast between the roles of Egyptian women and the women of Athens. He observed that Egyptian women attended market and were employed in trade. In ancient Egypt a middle-class woman might sit on a local tribunal, engage in real estate transactions, and inherit or bequeath property. Women also secured loans, and witnessed legal documents.[23]
Greek influence spread, however, with the conquests of Alexander the Great, who was educated by Aristotle.[24]
In medieval Europe, female Empresses (such as Theodora) and Matriarchs (such as Helena, the mother of Constantine) enjoyed privilege, political rule, and societal honor.[25]
From the time of Martin Luther, Protestantism regularly used the commandment in Exodus 20:12 to justify the duties owed to all superiors. ‘Honor thy father,’ was taken to apply not only to fathers, but elders, and the king.
Although many 16th and 17th Century theorists agreed with Aristotle’s views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir Robert Filmer. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled Patriarcha. However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from Adam, the first man of the human race, according to Judeo-Christian tradition.[26]
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- ↑ πατριάρχης, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ↑ patriarchy, on Oxford Dictionaries
- ↑ πατριά, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
- ↑ ἄρχω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
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- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namederdal - ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Strozier, Robert M. (2002) Foucault, Subjectivity, and Identity: : Historical Constructions of Subject and Self p.46
- ↑ Template:Cite journal
- ↑ Ehrenberg, 1989; Harris, M. (1993) The Evolution of Human Gender Hierarchies; Leibowitz, 1983; Lerner, 1986; Sanday, 1981
- ↑ Lerner, Gerda (1986) The Creation of Patriarchy 8-11
- ↑ Meno 71e-f)
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- ↑ Lerner, Gerda. The Creation of Patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. “Symbols,” Chapter 10
- ↑ Ptahhotep, trans. John A. Wilson. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to The Old Testament. James B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton University Press, 1950. 412
- ↑ Bristow, John Temple. What Paul Really Said About Women: an Apostle's liberating views on equality in marriage, leadership, and love, HarperCollins, New York, 1991.
- ↑ See the historical fiction novel by Evelyn Waugh, Helena and the True Cross. Reviewed by Jan Willem Drijvers. Classics Ireland. Vol. 7, (2000), pp. 25-50. Published by: Classical Association of Ireland.
- ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia