Patriarchy (anthropology) - Revision history

Robert Brockway at 02:49, 18 May 2020

2020-05-18T02:49:51Z

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	==References==		==References==
	{{Reflist\|3}}		{{Reflist\|3}}

	==Further reading==
	<!-- * {{cite book\|author=\|title=\|publisher=\|year=\|isbn=\|url=}} -->
	* Adeline, Helen B. ''Fascinating Womanhood''. New York: Random House, 2007.
	* [[Simon Baron-Cohen\|Baron-Cohen, Simon]]. ''The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain''. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2003.
	* [[Simone de Beauvoir\|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''The Second Sex''. New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]], 1953. (first USA edition, in translation)
	* [[Ernest Borneman\|Bornemann, Ernest]]. ''Das Patriarchat - Ursprung und Zukunft unseres Gesellschaftssystems'', Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1991 (Original German edition 1975), ISBN 3-596-23416-6
	* [[Pierre Bourdieu\|Bourdieu, Pierre]]. ''Masculine Domination''. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]], 2001.
	* [[Louann Brizendine\|Brizendine, Louann]]. ''The Female Brain''. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006.
	* [[Donald Brown (anthropologist)\|Brown, Donald E]]. ''[[Human Universals]]''. New York: [[McGraw Hill]], 1991.
	* [[Giorgio de Santillana\|de Santillana, Giorgio]] & Hertha von Dechend. ''Hamlet's Mill: an essay investigating the origins of human knowledge and its transmission through myth''. David R. Godine, publisher, Jaffrey, New Hampshire, 1977. The effects of evolutionary theory on the study of culture, pp. 68–72.
	* Eisler, Riane. ' 'The Chalice and the Blade' '. Harper Collins, 1987.
	* [[Marija Gimbutas\|Gimbutas, Marija]]. ''The civilization of the goddess: the world of Old Europe''. Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1991.
	* Jay, Jennifer W. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28199604%2F06%29116%3A2%3C220%3AIM%22OWI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage 'Imagining Matriarchy:] "Kingdoms of Women" in Tang China'. ''[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]'' '''116''' (1996): 220-229.
	* [[Melvin Konner\|Konner, Melvin]]. ''[http://www.henryholt.com/tangledwing/tangledwingnotes.pdf The Tangled Wing:] Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit''. 2nd edition, revised and updated. ([[Henry Holt and Company\|Owl Books]], 2003). 560p. ISBN 0-8050-7279-9 [first published 1982, [http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTMK/TangledWing.htm Endnotes]
	* Lepowsky, Maria. ''[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/catalog/data/023108/0231081200.HTM Fruit of the Motherland:] Gender in an Egalitarian Society''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1993.
	* [[Margaret Mead\|Mead, Margaret]]. 'Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives'. ''[[Redbook]]'' 122 (1963).
	* Mies, Maria. ''Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour''. [[Palgrave Macmillan\|Palgrave MacMillan]], 1999.
	* Moir, Anne and David Jessel. ''[[Brain Sex]]: The Real Difference Between Men and Women''.
	* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In MZ Rosaldo and L Lamphere (eds). ''Woman, Culture and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 67–87.
	* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'So, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In S Ortner. ''Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 173–180.
	* {{cite book\|author=Smith, Bonnie G.\|title=Women's history in global perspective, Volume 2\|publisher=University of Illinois Press\|year=2005\|isbn=978-0-252-02997-4\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cQz2o883S38C}}
	* Pilcher, Jane and Imelda Wheelan. ''50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies''. London: Sage Publications, 2004.
	* [[Steven Pinker\|Pinker, Steven]]. ''The Blank Slate: A Modern Denial of Human Nature''. London: [[Penguin Books]], 2002.
	* [[Wendy Wood\|Wood, Wendy]] and Alice H. Eagly. ''A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences''. Psychological Bulletin. 128(5) (Sep. 2002):699-727.

Robert Brockway at 03:49, 14 July 2019

2019-07-14T03:49:39Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:49, 14 July 2019
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	'''Patriarchy''' (''rule by fathers'') is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure [[androcentrism\|central]] in social organization and in the roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Fathers hold authority over women and children. It involves institutions of male rule and privilege, entailing ~~[[Kyriarchy\|~~female subordination]]. Many patriarchal societies are also [[patrilineal]], meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage~~. The female equivalent is [[matriarchy]]~~.		'''Patriarchy''' (''rule by fathers'') is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure [[androcentrism\|central]] in social organization and in the roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Fathers hold authority over women and children. It involves institutions of male rule and privilege, entailing female subordination. Many patriarchal societies are also [[patrilineal]], meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage.

			The female equivalent is [[matriarchy]].

	==Definition and usage==		==Definition and usage==

Robert Brockway at 10:50, 5 April 2019

2019-04-05T10:50:03Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:50, 5 April 2019
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	One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for the origin of patriarchy starts with the view that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and therefore in most [[species]] females are a limiting resource over which males will compete. This is sometimes referred to as [[Bateman's principle]]. One important female preference will be for males who control more resources which can help her and her children. This in turn has caused a [[selection pressure]] on men to be competitive and succeed in gaining resources and power in competition with other men. There has not been a similarly strong selection pressure on females.<ref name="BussSchmitt2011">{{cite journal\|last1=Buss\|first1=David Michael\|last2=Schmitt\|first2=David P.\|title=Evolutionary Psychology and Feminism\|journal=Sex Roles\|volume=64\|issue=9-10\|year=2011\|pages=768–787\|issn=0360-0025\|doi=10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3}}</ref>		One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for the origin of patriarchy starts with the view that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and therefore in most [[species]] females are a limiting resource over which males will compete. This is sometimes referred to as [[Bateman's principle]]. One important female preference will be for males who control more resources which can help her and her children. This in turn has caused a [[selection pressure]] on men to be competitive and succeed in gaining resources and power in competition with other men. There has not been a similarly strong selection pressure on females.<ref name="BussSchmitt2011">{{cite journal\|last1=Buss\|first1=David Michael\|last2=Schmitt\|first2=David P.\|title=Evolutionary Psychology and Feminism\|journal=Sex Roles\|volume=64\|issue=9-10\|year=2011\|pages=768–787\|issn=0360-0025\|doi=10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3}}</ref>

			==Psychoanalytic theories==
			Although the term ''patriarchy'' is loosely used to stand for "male domination", as has been pointed out above, it more crucially means—as others have stated here: "The rule of The Father"<ref>[[Juliet Mitchell]], ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism''. London: Penguin, 1974. p. 409.</ref> or "The Responsibility of the Father". So patriarchy does not refer to a simple binary pattern of male power over women, but power exerted more complexly by age as well as gender, and by older men over women, children, and younger men. Some of these younger men may inherit and therefore have a stake in patriarchy's continuing conventions. Others may rebel.<ref>Barbara Eherenreich. “Life Without Father”, in L. McDowell and R. Pringle (1992) ''Defining Women''. London: Polity/Open University</ref><ref>Cynthia Cockburn (1993) ''Brothers: Male Dominance and Technological Change''. London: Pluto.</ref> This psychoanalytic model is based upon revisions of Freud's description of the normally neurotic family using the analogy of the story of Oedipus.<ref>[[Jaques Lacan]] (1949) 'The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience', in (1977) ''Ecrits: A Selection'' trans. A. Sheridan. London: Tavistock.</ref><ref>[[Laura Mulvey]] (1989) “The Oedipus Myth: Beyond the Riddles of the Sphinx”, in ''Visual and Other Pleasures''. Macmillan.</ref> Those who fall outside the Oedipal triad of mother/father/child are less subject to patriarchal authority.<ref>[[Judith Butler]] (2000) ''Antigone's Claim: Kinship Between Life and Death''.</ref> This has been taken as a position of symbolic power for queer identities. The operations of power in patriarchy are usually enacted unconsciously. All are subject, even fathers are bound by its strictures.<ref>Pen Dalton. (2008) “Complex Family Relations” in ''Family and Other Relations: A Thesis Examining the Extent to Which Family Relationships Shape the Relations of Art''. http://ethos.bl.uk "</ref> It is represented in unspoken traditions and conventions performed in everyday behaviors, customs, and habits.<ref>Mitchell op cit p. 409.</ref> The patriarchal triangular relationship of a father, a mother and an inheriting eldest son frequently form the dynamic and emotional narratives of popular culture and are enacted performatively in rituals of courtship and marriage.<ref>Dalton, P. 2000. “Patriarchy as Discourse” in ''The Gendering of Art Education''.</ref> They provide conceptual models for organising power relations in spheres that have nothing to do with the family, for example, politics and business.<ref>Geert Hofstede (1994) ''Cultures and Organizations''. London: Harper Collins. M. Tierney. “Negotiating a Software Career: Informal Work Practices and 'The Lads' in a Software Installation”, in K. Grint and R. Gill (eds) (1995) ''The Gender Technology Relation''. London: Taylor and Francis. M. Roper (1989) ''Masculinity and British Organizational Man''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

			==See also==

			===Related notions===
			* [[Feminism]]
			* [[Gender role]]
			* [[Homemaker]]
			* [[Masculinity]]
			* [[Nature versus nurture]]
			* [[Sociology of fatherhood]]
			* [[Family economics]]

			===Comparable social models===
			* [[Androcracy]]
			* [[Gynarchy]]
			* [[Kyriarchy]]
			* [[Matriarchy]]

			==References==
			{{Reflist\|3}}

			==Further reading==
			<!-- * {{cite book\|author=\|title=\|publisher=\|year=\|isbn=\|url=}} -->
			* Adeline, Helen B. ''Fascinating Womanhood''. New York: Random House, 2007.
			* [[Simon Baron-Cohen\|Baron-Cohen, Simon]]. ''The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain''. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2003.
			* [[Simone de Beauvoir\|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''The Second Sex''. New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]], 1953. (first USA edition, in translation)
			* [[Ernest Borneman\|Bornemann, Ernest]]. ''Das Patriarchat - Ursprung und Zukunft unseres Gesellschaftssystems'', Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1991 (Original German edition 1975), ISBN 3-596-23416-6
			* [[Pierre Bourdieu\|Bourdieu, Pierre]]. ''Masculine Domination''. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]], 2001.
			* [[Louann Brizendine\|Brizendine, Louann]]. ''The Female Brain''. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006.
			* [[Donald Brown (anthropologist)\|Brown, Donald E]]. ''[[Human Universals]]''. New York: [[McGraw Hill]], 1991.
			* [[Giorgio de Santillana\|de Santillana, Giorgio]] & Hertha von Dechend. ''Hamlet's Mill: an essay investigating the origins of human knowledge and its transmission through myth''. David R. Godine, publisher, Jaffrey, New Hampshire, 1977. The effects of evolutionary theory on the study of culture, pp. 68–72.
			* Eisler, Riane. ' 'The Chalice and the Blade' '. Harper Collins, 1987.
			* [[Marija Gimbutas\|Gimbutas, Marija]]. ''The civilization of the goddess: the world of Old Europe''. Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1991.
			* Jay, Jennifer W. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28199604%2F06%29116%3A2%3C220%3AIM%22OWI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage 'Imagining Matriarchy:] "Kingdoms of Women" in Tang China'. ''[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]'' '''116''' (1996): 220-229.
			* [[Melvin Konner\|Konner, Melvin]]. ''[http://www.henryholt.com/tangledwing/tangledwingnotes.pdf The Tangled Wing:] Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit''. 2nd edition, revised and updated. ([[Henry Holt and Company\|Owl Books]], 2003). 560p. ISBN 0-8050-7279-9 [first published 1982, [http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTMK/TangledWing.htm Endnotes]
			* Lepowsky, Maria. ''[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/catalog/data/023108/0231081200.HTM Fruit of the Motherland:] Gender in an Egalitarian Society''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1993.
			* [[Margaret Mead\|Mead, Margaret]]. 'Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives'. ''[[Redbook]]'' 122 (1963).
			* Mies, Maria. ''Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour''. [[Palgrave Macmillan\|Palgrave MacMillan]], 1999.
			* Moir, Anne and David Jessel. ''[[Brain Sex]]: The Real Difference Between Men and Women''.
			* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In MZ Rosaldo and L Lamphere (eds). ''Woman, Culture and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 67–87.
			* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'So, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In S Ortner. ''Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 173–180.
			* {{cite book\|author=Smith, Bonnie G.\|title=Women's history in global perspective, Volume 2\|publisher=University of Illinois Press\|year=2005\|isbn=978-0-252-02997-4\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cQz2o883S38C}}
			* Pilcher, Jane and Imelda Wheelan. ''50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies''. London: Sage Publications, 2004.
			* [[Steven Pinker\|Pinker, Steven]]. ''The Blank Slate: A Modern Denial of Human Nature''. London: [[Penguin Books]], 2002.
			* [[Wendy Wood\|Wood, Wendy]] and Alice H. Eagly. ''A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences''. Psychological Bulletin. 128(5) (Sep. 2002):699-727.

Robert Brockway at 10:48, 5 April 2019

2019-04-05T10:48:38Z

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	Although many 16th and 17th Century theorists agreed with Aristotle’s views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir [[Robert Filmer]]. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled ''Patriarcha''. However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from [[Adam]], the first man of the human race, according to [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|last=Gordon\|first=Schochet\|title=Patriarchy and Paternalism\|encyclopedia=Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World\|year=2004\|publisher=Charles Scribners & Sons\|isbn=068431200X}}</ref>		Although many 16th and 17th Century theorists agreed with Aristotle’s views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir [[Robert Filmer]]. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled ''Patriarcha''. However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from [[Adam]], the first man of the human race, according to [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|last=Gordon\|first=Schochet\|title=Patriarchy and Paternalism\|encyclopedia=Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World\|year=2004\|publisher=Charles Scribners & Sons\|isbn=068431200X}}</ref>

			In the 19th Century, various women began to question the commonly accepted patriarchal interpretation of Christian scripture. One of the foremost of these was [[Sarah Grimké]], who voiced skepticism about the ability of men to translate and interpret passages relating to the roles of the sexes without bias. She proposed alternative translations and interpretations of passages relating to women, and she applied historical and cultural criticism to a number of verses, arguing that their admonitions applied to specific historical situations, and were not to be viewed as universal commands.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Durso\|first=Pamela R.\|title=The Power of Woman: The Life and writings of Sarah Moore Grimké\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aQFTJJgK8esC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false\|year=2003\|publisher=Mercer University Press\|location=Macon, Ga.\|isbn=978-0-86554-876-3\|pages=130–138\|edition=1st ed.}}</ref> [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] used Grimké’s criticism of biblical sources to establish a basis for feminist thought. She published ''[[The Woman's Bible]]'', which proposed a feminist reading of the Old and New Testament. This tendency was enlarged by feminist theory, which denounced the patriarchal Judeo-Christian tradition.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Castro, Ginette\|title=American Feminism: a contemporary history\|publisher=NYU Press\|year=1990\|isbn=9780814714485\|url=http://books.google.com.hk/books?id=DYuBjJXGsZkC&hl}}</ref>

			==Feminist theory==
			Most forms of [[feminism]] characterize patriarchy as [[patriarchy theory\|an unjust social system]] that is [[oppression\|oppressive]] to women. As feminist and political theorist [[Carole Pateman]] writes, "The patriarchal construction of the difference between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection."<ref>Pateman, Carole (1988). ''The Sexual Contract'', Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.</ref> In [[feminist theory]] the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women. Feminist theory typically characterizes patriarchy as a social construction, which can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Tickner, Ann J.\|chapter=Patriarchy\|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z\|publisher=Taylor & Francis\|year=2001\|isbn=978-0-415-24352-0\|pages=1197–1198\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lSmU3aXWIAYC&pg=PA1197}}</ref>

			==Modern Jungian theory==
			In this analysis patriarchy may be seen as an expression of a stunted, immature form of masculinity and thus as attack on masculinity in its fullness as well as on femininity in its fullness.<ref>King, warrior, magician, lover; R Moore and D Gillette, 1990, pxvii</ref>

			==Biological vs. social theories==
			Most sociologists reject predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that social and cultural conditioning is primarily responsible for establishing male and female [[gender roles]].<ref name="Sanderson">{{cite book\|title=The Evolution of Human Sociality\|first=Stephen K.\|last=Sanderson\|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield\|year=2001\|page=198\|isbn=0-8476-9535-2}}</ref><ref name="Henslin">{{cite book\|title=Essentials of Sociology\|first=James M.\|last=Henslin\|publisher=Taylor & Francis\|year=2001\|pages=65–67, 240\|isbn=0-536-94185-8}}</ref> According to standard sociological theory, patriarchy is the result of sociological constructions that are passed down from generation to generation.<ref name="Sanderson"/> These constructions are most pronounced in societies with traditional cultures and less economic development.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Sociology: A Global Introduction\|first=John J.\|last=Macionis\|publisher=Prentice Hall\|year=2000\|page=347\|isbn=0-13-040737-2}}</ref> Even in modern developed societies, however, gender messages conveyed by family, mass media, and other institutions largely favor males having a dominant status.<ref name="Henslin"/>

			Biologist [[Richard Lewontin]] asserts that patriarchy persists through social and political reasons rather than purely scientific reasons. In ''The Determined Patriarchy'', Lewontin reflects feminist concerns for the future of patriarchy and how to rid society of it by uprooting the source. People who oppose feminism have argued that patriarchy has its birth in biological reasons. This is called biological determinism, which looks at humanity from a strictly biological point of view. These people believe that because of a woman's biology, she is more fit to do what society perceives as womanly roles, such as cooking and cleaning. However, Lewontin and other feminists argue that biological determinism unjustly limits women. In his study, he states females behave a certain way not because they are biologically inclined to, but rather because they are judged by "how well they conform to the stereotypical local image of femininity" (Lewontin 137). Feminists believe that people have had gendered biases since others around them have set apart a social standard for people to follow. For instance, an American doctor said that women cannot make rational decisions during their menopausal periods. This claim may cloak the fact that men also have periods of time where they can be aggressive and irrational. Women's biological traits, such as their ability to get pregnant, are often used against them as an attribute of weakness. However, even as biology is used against women, it is often that the perceived biological bias towards them is not correct. For example, it has been asserted for over a century that women are not as intellectually competent as men because they have slightly smaller brains on average.<ref name="Gould1980">{{cite book\|last=Gould\|first=Stephen Jay\|title=The Panda's Thumb\|year=1980\|publisher=Norton\|location=New York\|isbn=0393308197\|pages=152–159}}</ref> However, no substantiated significant difference in average intelligence has been found between the sexes.<ref name="Hedges and Nowell">{{cite journal\|last1=Hedges\|first1=L.\|last2=Nowell\|first2=A\|title=Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring
			individuals\|journal=Science\|volume=269\|issue=5220\|year=1995\|pages=41–45\|issn=0036-8075\|doi=10.1126/science.7604277}}</ref></ref> Furthermore, no discrepancy in intelligence is assumed between men of different heights, even though on average taller men have been found to have slightly larger brains.<ref name="Gould1980"/> Feminists assert that although women may excel in certain areas and men in others, they are just as competent as men in every field.<ref>Lewontin, Richard, Steven Rose, and Leon Kamin. Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984. “The Determined Patriarchy,” Chapter 6</ref>

			Some [[sociobiologist]]s, such as [[Steven Goldberg]], argue that social behavior is primarily determined by [[genetics]], and thus that patriarchy arises more as a result of inherent biology than social conditioning. Goldberg also contends that patriarchy is a universal feature of human culture. In 1973, Goldberg wrote, "The ethnographic studies of every society that has ever been observed explicitly state that these feelings were present, there is literally no variation at all."<ref name="Goldberg, Steven">Goldberg, Steven (1973). ''The inevitability of Patriarchy'', William Morrow, New York.</ref> Goldberg has critics among anthropologists. Concerning Goldberg's claims about the "feelings of both men and women" [[Eleanor Leacock]] countered in 1974 that the data on women's attitudes are "sparse and contradictory", and that the data on male attitudes about male-female relations are "ambiguous". Also, the effects of colonialism on the cultures represented in the studies were not considered.<ref name="Leacock, Eleanor">"Review of The inevitability of patriarchy by Steven Goldberg", ''American Anthropologist'', New Series, Vol. 76, No. 2 (Jun., 1974), pp. 363-365, Blackwell publishing.</ref>

			There is considerable variation in the role that gender plays in human societies. Although there are no known human examples of strictly [[matriarchal]] cultures,<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Matriarchy\|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica\|year=2007\|quote=The view of matriarchy as constituting a stage of cultural development is now generally discredited. Furthermore, the consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that a strictly matriarchal society never existed.}}</ref> there are a number of societies that have been shown to be [[matrilinear]] or [[matrilocal]] and gynocentric, especially among indigenous tribal groups.<ref>{{cite book\|title=Male dominance and female autonomy: domestic authority in matrilineal societies\|first=Alice\|last=Schlegel\|year=1972\|publisher=HRAF Press}}</ref> Some [[hunter-gatherer]] groups have been characterized as largely [[egalitarianism\|egalitarian]].<ref name="erdal">Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (eds) Modelling the Early Human Mind. Cambridge Macdonald Monograph Series.</ref>

			One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for the origin of patriarchy starts with the view that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and therefore in most [[species]] females are a limiting resource over which males will compete. This is sometimes referred to as [[Bateman's principle]]. One important female preference will be for males who control more resources which can help her and her children. This in turn has caused a [[selection pressure]] on men to be competitive and succeed in gaining resources and power in competition with other men. There has not been a similarly strong selection pressure on females.<ref name="BussSchmitt2011">{{cite journal\|last1=Buss\|first1=David Michael\|last2=Schmitt\|first2=David P.\|title=Evolutionary Psychology and Feminism\|journal=Sex Roles\|volume=64\|issue=9-10\|year=2011\|pages=768–787\|issn=0360-0025\|doi=10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3}}</ref>

Robert Brockway: Created page with "'''Patriarchy''' (''rule by fathers'') is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure central in social organization and in the roles o..."

2019-04-05T10:45:52Z

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'''Patriarchy''' (''rule by fathers'') is a social system in which the male is the primary authority figure [[androcentrism|central]] in social organization and in the roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Fathers hold authority over women and children. It involves institutions of male rule and privilege, entailing [[Kyriarchy|female subordination]]. Many patriarchal societies are also [[patrilineal]], meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage. The female equivalent is [[matriarchy]].

==Definition and usage==
Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father"<ref>{{cite book|author=Ferguson, Kathy E.|chapter=Patriarchy|editor=Tierney, Helen|title=Women's studies encyclopedia, Volume 2|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|year=1999|isbn=978-0-313-31072-0|page=1048|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2bDxJW3x4f8C&pg=PA1048}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Green, Fiona Joy|chapter=Patriarchal Ideology of Motherhood|editor=O'Reilly, Andrea|title=Encyclopedia of Motherhood, Volume 1|publisher=SAGE|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4129-6846-1|page=969|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Pcxqzal4bEYC&pg=PA969}}</ref> and comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] πατριάρχης (''patriarkhēs''), "father of a race" or "chief of a race, [[patriarch]]",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpatria%2Frxhs πατριάρχης], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref><ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0610450#m_en_gb0610450 patriarchy], on Oxford Dictionaries</ref> which is a [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] of πατριά (''patria''), " lineage, descent"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpatria%2F πατριά], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> (from πατήρ - ''patēr'', "father") and ἄρχω (''arxō''), "I rule".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Frxw ἄρχω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>

Historically, the term patriarchy referred to [[autocratic]] rule by the male head of a family. However, in modern times, it more generally refers to social systems in which power is primarily held by adult men.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Meagher, Michelle|chapter=patriarchy|editors=Ritzer, George & Ryan, J. Michael|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4051-8353-6|pages=441–442|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4wU64f_JYC&pg=PA441}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sociology|edition=5th|publisher=Polity|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7456-3379-4|page=473|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vbu2gis26C0C&pg=PA473|author=Giddens, Anthony & Griffiths, Simon}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Gordon, April A.|title=Transforming capitalism and patriarchy: gender and development in Africa|publisher=Lynne Reiner|year=1996|isbn=978-1-55587-629-6|page=18|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k50W7Z3aZIsC&pg=PA18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=|chapter=Patriarchy|editors=Boynton, Victoria & Malin, Jo|title=Encyclopedia of Women's Autobiography: K-Z|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|isbn=978-0-313-32739-1|page=453|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W0pRCki6Jn8C&pg=PA453}}</ref>

==History==
Anthropological evidence suggests that most [[prehistoric]] [[hunter-gatherer]] societies were relatively [[egalitarian]], and that patriarchal social structures did not develop until many years after the end of the [[Pleistocene]] era, following social and technological innovations such as [[agriculture]] and [[domestication]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Women in Ancient Civilizations|editor=Adas, Michael|title=Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-1-56639-832-9|pages=118–119|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC&pg=PA118|author=Hughes, Sarah Shaver & Hughes Brady}}</ref><ref name="Eagly99">{{cite journal|author=Eagly, Alice H. & Wood, Wendy|title=The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles|work=American Psychologist|volume=54|issue=6|date=June 1999|pages=408–423|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/fiske/facets/eagly&wood.htm}}</ref><ref name="erdal"/> However, according to [[Robert M. Strozier]], historical research has not yet found a specific "initiating event".<ref name="Strozier">Strozier, Robert M. (2002) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fuDdNSLXPI8C Foucault, Subjectivity, and Identity: : Historical Constructions of Subject and Self]'' p.46</ref> Some scholars point to about six thousand years ago (4000 [[BCE]]), when the concept of [[father]]hood took root, as the beginning of the spread of patriarchy.

<ref name="Kraemer1991">{{cite journal|last1=Kraemer|first1=Sebastian|title=The Origins of Fatherhood: An Ancient Family Process|journal=Family Process|volume=30|issue=4|year=1991|pages=377–392|issn=0014-7370|doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00377.x}}</ref>

<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=11879852 Ehrenberg, 1989]; Harris, M. (1993) ''The Evolution of Human Gender Hierarchies''; Leibowitz, 1983; Lerner, 1986; Sanday, 1981</ref>

Domination by men of women is found in the [[Ancient Near East]] as far back as 3100 BCE, as are restrictions on a woman's reproductive capacity and exclusion from "the process of representing or the construction of history".<ref name="Strozier"/> With the appearance of the [[Hebrews]], there is also "the exclusion of woman from the God-humanity covenant".<ref name="Strozier"/><ref>Lerner, Gerda (1986) ''[http://books.google.com/books?&id=Zc318kI-TPMC The Creation of Patriarchy]'' 8-11</ref>

A prominent Greek general [[Meno (general)|Meno]], in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, sums up the prevailing Greek sentiment about the respective virtues of men and women. He says:
:Let us take first the virtue of a man—he should know how to administer the state, and in the administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. ''A woman's virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: her duty is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband.''"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0178:text=Meno:section=71e&highlight=husband Meno 71e-f)]</ref>

The works of [[Aristotle]] portrayed women as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men; saw women as the property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and serve men in the household; and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fishbein, Harold D.|title=Peer prejudice and discrimination: the origins of prejudice|edition=2nd|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8058-3772-8|page=27|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HBwAYLFPP3sC&pg=PA27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Dubber, Markus Dirk|title=The police power: patriarchy and the foundations of American government|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-231-13207-7|pages=5–7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cjdbRF8PXhUC&pg=PA5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Bar On, Bat-Ami|title=Engendering origins: critical feminist readings in Plato and Aristotle|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7914-1643-3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6UVq3z2Kd6cC}}</ref>

In Symbols by Gerda Lerner, she states that Aristotle believed that women had colder blood than men, which made women not evolve into men, the sex that Aristotle believed to be perfect and superior. Maryanne Cline Horowotz stated that Aristotle believed that "soul contributes the form and model of creation." This implies that any imperfection that is caused in the world must be caused by a woman because one cannot acquire an imperfection from perfection (which was perceived as male). Aristotle had a hierarchical ruling structure in his theories. Just as he believed that the Greeks were greater than the barbarians, he also duly believed that men were greater than women.

Lerner claims that through this patriarchy that has been passed down generation to generation, people have conditioned to believe that men are superior to women. These symbols are benchmarks which children learn about when they grow up, and the cycle of patriarchy continues much past the Greeks.<ref>Lerner, Gerda. The Creation of Patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. “Symbols,” Chapter 10</ref>

[[Egypt]] left no philosophical record, but [[Herodotus]] left a record of his shock at the contrast between the roles of Egyptian women and the women of Athens. He observed that Egyptian women attended market and were employed in [[trade]]. In ancient Egypt a middle-class woman might sit on a local [[tribunal]], engage in [[real estate]] transactions, and inherit or bequeath [[property]]. Women also secured loans, and witnessed legal documents.<ref>Ptahhotep, trans. John A. Wilson. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to The Old Testament. James B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton University Press, 1950. 412</ref>

Greek influence spread, however, with the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], who was educated by Aristotle.<ref>Bristow, John Temple. ''What Paul Really Said About Women: an Apostle's liberating views on equality in marriage, leadership, and love'', HarperCollins, New York, 1991.</ref>

In medieval Europe, female Empresses (such as Theodora) and Matriarchs (such as [[Helena (Empress)|Helena]], the mother of [[Constantine I|Constantine]]) enjoyed privilege, political rule, and societal honor.<ref>See the historical fiction novel by Evelyn Waugh, Helena and the True Cross. Reviewed by Jan Willem Drijvers. Classics Ireland. Vol. 7, (2000), pp. 25-50. Published by: Classical Association of Ireland.</ref>

From the time of [[Martin Luther]], [[Protestantism]] regularly used the commandment in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 20:12 to justify the duties owed to all superiors. ‘Honor thy father,’ was taken to apply not only to fathers, but elders, and the king.

Although many 16th and 17th Century theorists agreed with Aristotle’s views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir [[Robert Filmer]]. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled ''Patriarcha''. However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from [[Adam]], the first man of the human race, according to [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Gordon|first=Schochet|title=Patriarchy and Paternalism|encyclopedia=Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World|year=2004|publisher=Charles Scribners & Sons|isbn=068431200X}}</ref>

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	==References==		==References==
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	==Further reading==
	<!-- * {{cite book\|author=\|title=\|publisher=\|year=\|isbn=\|url=}} -->
	* Adeline, Helen B. ''Fascinating Womanhood''. New York: Random House, 2007.
	* [[Simon Baron-Cohen\|Baron-Cohen, Simon]]. ''The Essential Difference: The Truth about the Male and Female Brain''. New York: Perseus Books Group, 2003.
	* [[Simone de Beauvoir\|Beauvoir, Simone de]]. ''The Second Sex''. New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]], 1953. (first USA edition, in translation)
	* [[Ernest Borneman\|Bornemann, Ernest]]. ''Das Patriarchat - Ursprung und Zukunft unseres Gesellschaftssystems'', Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1991 (Original German edition 1975), ISBN 3-596-23416-6
	* [[Pierre Bourdieu\|Bourdieu, Pierre]]. ''Masculine Domination''. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]], 2001.
	* [[Louann Brizendine\|Brizendine, Louann]]. ''The Female Brain''. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006.
	* [[Donald Brown (anthropologist)\|Brown, Donald E]]. ''[[Human Universals]]''. New York: [[McGraw Hill]], 1991.
	* [[Giorgio de Santillana\|de Santillana, Giorgio]] & Hertha von Dechend. ''Hamlet's Mill: an essay investigating the origins of human knowledge and its transmission through myth''. David R. Godine, publisher, Jaffrey, New Hampshire, 1977. The effects of evolutionary theory on the study of culture, pp. 68–72.
	* Eisler, Riane. ' 'The Chalice and the Blade' '. Harper Collins, 1987.
	* [[Marija Gimbutas\|Gimbutas, Marija]]. ''The civilization of the goddess: the world of Old Europe''. Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1991.
	* Jay, Jennifer W. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28199604%2F06%29116%3A2%3C220%3AIM%22OWI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage 'Imagining Matriarchy:] "Kingdoms of Women" in Tang China'. ''[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]'' '''116''' (1996): 220-229.
	* [[Melvin Konner\|Konner, Melvin]]. ''[http://www.henryholt.com/tangledwing/tangledwingnotes.pdf The Tangled Wing:] Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit''. 2nd edition, revised and updated. ([[Henry Holt and Company\|Owl Books]], 2003). 560p. ISBN 0-8050-7279-9 [first published 1982, [http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTMK/TangledWing.htm Endnotes]
	* Lepowsky, Maria. ''[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/catalog/data/023108/0231081200.HTM Fruit of the Motherland:] Gender in an Egalitarian Society''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1993.
	* [[Margaret Mead\|Mead, Margaret]]. 'Do We Undervalue Full-Time Wives'. ''[[Redbook]]'' 122 (1963).
	* Mies, Maria. ''Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour''. [[Palgrave Macmillan\|Palgrave MacMillan]], 1999.
	* Moir, Anne and David Jessel. ''[[Brain Sex]]: The Real Difference Between Men and Women''.
	* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In MZ Rosaldo and L Lamphere (eds). ''Woman, Culture and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 67–87.
	* [[Sherry Ortner\|Ortner, Sherry Beth]]. 'So, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?'. In S Ortner. ''Making Gender: The Politics and Erotics of Culture.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 173–180.
	* {{cite book\|author=Smith, Bonnie G.\|title=Women's history in global perspective, Volume 2\|publisher=University of Illinois Press\|year=2005\|isbn=978-0-252-02997-4\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cQz2o883S38C}}
	* Pilcher, Jane and Imelda Wheelan. ''50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies''. London: Sage Publications, 2004.
	* [[Steven Pinker\|Pinker, Steven]]. ''The Blank Slate: A Modern Denial of Human Nature''. London: [[Penguin Books]], 2002.
	* [[Wendy Wood\|Wood, Wendy]] and Alice H. Eagly. ''A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences''. Psychological Bulletin. 128(5) (Sep. 2002):699-727.